The translation equivalence in the transfer of the semantics of language units

Functional-situational aspects of the content statements do not constitute all the information contained therein. The content of the two statements can be different, even if they convey the same objective of communication, describe the same situation using the same General concepts. For the complete identity of their content is necessary to completely coincided their constituent lexical units (words) and syntactic relations between units. Any message is constructed from language units, each of which represents certain information has its own value. The content of the speech does not exist apart from the linguistic units of which it consists, though it is often not fully reducible to a simple sum of these values. Besides the fact that linguistic units in the utterance together Express a functional-contextual aspects of content, they provide the content and additional meaning, which is also included in the transmitted message. In various environments communication to the fore can be a separate semantic elements of speech, and then the choice of words or the syntactic structure plays an important role in the content of the entire message.
If the first three types of equivalence discussed the transfer of elements of meaning which are possible when a significant discrepancy between the linguistic means through which this meaning is expressed in the original and the translation, now we need to find equivalent match the values of language units of the source language. Since the values of units of different languages do not completely coincide, replacing each other the elements of the original and translation, as a rule, are not identical in meaning. However, in many cases the translation can play a significant part of the information contained in language of the original. In the following two types of equivalence the semantic similarity between the original and the translation includes not only the goal of the communication, specifying the situation and the method of its description, but also maximally possible proximity values associated syntactic and lexical units. Here stored information is not only "what", "what" and "what" is said in the text, but partly also "how would you say it".
In the fourth type of equivalence, along with the three components of the content stored in the third type, translated and reproduced a significant portion of the values of the syntactic structures of the original. Structural organization of the original represents certain information included in the General content of the translated text. The syntactic structure of the utterance leads to the use of words of a certain type in a certain sequence and with specific links between individual words, but also largely determines the content, which comes to the fore in the act of communication. Therefore, the maximum possible preservation of the syntactic organization of the original in the translation enhances the reproduction of the content of the original. In addition, the syntactic parallelism of the original and translation provides a basis for correlating the separate elements of these texts, justifying their structural identification of the communicants.
Comparative analysis detects a significant number of transfers have a parallelism of syntactic organization in relation to the original. The use in the translation of similar syntactic structures ensures the invariance of the syntactic values of the original and translation. Especially important is the provision of such parallelism in the translation of texts state or international instruments where the translation often receives the legal status of the original, i.e., both texts being equally authentic, are authentic. The desire to preserve the syntactic organization of the text can easily be detected when comparing the original translations of works of different type, including art. For example, here is a small excerpt from novel by Mark TWAIN "a Yankee at the court of king Arthur" and his translation (TRANS. N. Chukovsky):
One thing troubled me along at first the immense interest which people took in me. Apparently the whole nation wanted a look at me. It soon transpired that the eclipse had scared the British world almost to death; that while it lasted the whole country, from one end to the other, was in a pitiable state of panic, and the churches, hermitages, and monkeries overflowed with praying and weeping poor creatures who thought the end of the world was come. Then had followed the news that the producer of this awful event was a stranger, a mighty magician at Arthur's court; that he could have blown the sun like a candle, and was just going to do it when bis mercy was purchased, and he then dissolved Ms enchantments, and was now recognized and honored as the man who had by his unaided might saved the globe from destruction and its people from extinction.
One thing troubled me at first extraordinary curiosity, which belonged to me. It seemed that all the people wanted me to see. Soon it became known that the Eclipse of Britain howl scared to death that while it lasted, all the country from end to end was covered by boundless terror and all the churches, the monastery and the monasteries were full of praying and crying by people who believe that it is the end of the world. Then found out that this terrible trouble had sent a foreigner, a powerful wizard living at the court of king Arthur, that he could extinguish the sun like a candle, and was going to do, but they besought him to dispel enchantment, and that it should now be read as a person who with his power saved the universe from destruction, and people - from destruction.
The translation of this cut is made by highly qualified translator, skillfully using the wealth of means of expression in the Russian language. The narrative unfolds easily and freely, it is difficult to notice a kind of constraint, subordination of foreign language form, etc. And, in spite of this, you will notice a substantial commonality of the syntactic organization of the source and target languages. The total number of matches. The associated propositions are of the same type, the location, the order of main and subordinate clauses is the same. If the original sentence are homogeneous members, then the translation repeats the same sentence. In most cases, each sentence in the original corresponds to the homogeneous part of the sentence translated, equally situated in relation to other members, etc.
Also interesting paper you should read "The functional status of Anglo-Americanisms in the mirror of Russian press"

To be continued.

How english language has developed

The English language has a very long and eventful history. Its development began in the 5th century BC, when groups of West German tribes settled in the British Isles.

Only it would be reasonable to allocate 5 periods in the history of the English language:

• Ancient English
• Old English 
• English middle ages
• Modern English 
• British English 

History of the English language begins with the invasion of the Germanic tribes to Britain in the 5th century. However, before them in Britain, lived the Celts. The Celts began to settle in Britain in the 7th century BC. Due to the arrival of the Germans the Celts had to leave the North: the territory of modern Ireland, Wales, the Pennines and Scotland.

Almost 4 century Celtic Britain was a province of the Roman Empire. The first attempt to conquer Britain was made by Julius Caesar in the first century 1 BC. The second attempt was made by the Emperor Claudius, when the Romans managed to conquer Britain. All this time up to 449 years in Britain spoke Celtic and Latin languages. In addition, in Britain came from the Roman law, the Roman way of life.

In the year 449 Germanic conquerors come, this moment is considered the starting point in the history of the English language. The German conquest was long. After the conquest of the West Germanic languages spread throughout Britain, except in those regions where lived many of the Celts, namely, Scotland, Wales and Cornwall.

Proofreading 

Modern status of English as a multinational.

Modern status of English as a multinational.Modern British language, first, heterogeneous, and secondly, far from the classical English existed 3 centuries ago. Inside the British version there are three types of language: conservative English (conservative - language of Royal family and Parliament), adopted standard (received pronunciation, RP - language media, it still name BBC English) and advanced English (advanced - language of youth). The last type - the most mobile, it actively incorporates elements of other languages and cultures. Advanced English is most susceptible to the General tendency to simplify the language. Changes occur primarily in lexicon, one of the most mobile parts of language and grammar. Linguistic change in grammar is caused primarily by the tendency of economy of language and efforts to simplify the language. The new lexicon comes to the British youth language from other variants of English, in particular, amerikanskogo.

The language of the educated population of London and the South-East of England - has acquired the status of a national standard (RP). It is based on "proper English" - the language of the best private schools (Eton, Winchester, Harrow, Rugby) and universities (Oxford, Cambridge). This is the classical, literary English which is the base of any course of English language at linguistic schools for foreigners.

Irish, Australian and new Zealand versions of English, perhaps the closest thing to classic British. Due to geographic isolation, these countries have not experienced the strong influence of other languages and cultures. In the formation of American English participated almost all the inhabitants of Europe, while Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa, was inhabited primarily by the British. There's English and kept more or less classic form. The differences consist mainly again in phonetics - in particular, in the melody. It's more smooth, "neutral" pronunciation, replace the "complex" sounds more simple.

But America has created almost a new language: changes have concerned not only phonetics and lexicon, but also the steadiest part of language - grammar. So it is natural that disputes are conducted mainly around the two variants of English - British and American.

You can read more about proofreading at proofreading247.

Unlike the British variant the American English is more flexible, open to changes and easy for perception. In particular, why he became more popular in the world. It's the language of new generation without a certain nationality and place of residence, brought up on mass culture. English language of modern youth more or less common due to the General culture, rock music, the dense communications and those ideals and idols which are common with spiritual food.